Roquefort Cheese

Roquefort cheese benefits from a designation of origin since 1925 (the first one in France), a registered Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée (AOC) since 1979, and PDO since 1996, throughout the European Union.

From: Raw Milk , 2019

Cheese: Types of Cheese – Medium

J.M. Kongo , F.X. Malcata , in Encyclopedia of Food and Health, 2016

Roquefort

Roquefort ( Figure 4 ) is a popular French cheese, reported to be called in France the 'cheese of kings and popes.' This cheese is protected by AOC (PDO) guidelines. Roquefort cheese is moist and breaks into little pieces easily. Genuine Roquefort is made from sheep's milk, and after aging for 3–5 months, the cheese is creamy with a sharp, tangy, salty flavor. Roquefort belongs to the group of the so-called blue cheeses due to the blue-colored veins it develops from the growth of Penicillium roqueforti, which is added to the curd or introduced through holes poked in the rind.

Figure 4. A slice of Roquefort cheese showing the typical paste with spots or veins of the mold Penicillium sp.

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Blue Cheese

J.F. Martín , M. Coton , in Fermented Foods in Health and Disease Prevention, 2017

12.1.1.4 Blue Cheese Ripening

The final stage during blue cheese manufacture is ripening. This step can vary according to blue cheese type and different ripening times (from weeks to months) and storage conditions may be used (Table 12.1 ). Indeed, some blue cheeses are ripened in classical ripening rooms, while others are stored in traditional caves such as French Roquefort cheese. Ripening is an important and complex step involving multiple changes in biotic and abiotic factors of the microenvironment, microbial growth and communities as well as biochemical composition. In particular, pronounced gradients of NaCl, pH, a w and gas composition (O2 and CO2 levels) can be observed as well as diverse microbial biochemical changes resulting from lipolysis, proteolysis, and aroma formation. Certain parameters strongly influence the biochemical activities of the various microorganisms present during this stage thereby impacting final product quality. During this period, blue cheese develops the distinctive greenish blue colored veins characteristic of P. roqueforti conidia and mold color can vary among shades of white, green, blue, or brown (Fig. 12.1), depending on strain and its age (Cantor et al., 2004) in the veins as well as the distinct organoleptic properties related to the final taste, texture, and aroma. In particular, P. roqueforti germination, growth, and sporulation occur during this phase and visible growth appears in the cheese core after approximately 2–3   weeks ripening (Fig. 12.2) as this species is well adapted to the conditions encountered.

Figure 12.2. Electron microscopy images of Penicillium roqueforti growing in the veins of blue-veined cheese. The scales indicate 100   μm (upper left), 20   μm (upper right), 10   μm (lower left), and 2   μm (lower right).

 The photographs are courtesy of Prof. Jérôme Mounier, Microscopy Platform from the Université de Bretagne Occidentale (UBO).

Moreover, the characteristic blue-green veins appear after P. roqueforti sporulation during ripening. Ripening occurs at controlled low temperatures ranging from 8 to 12°C and high relative humidity levels ranging between 85% and 95% according to blue cheese type.

Short ripening times can be observed for some cow's milk based cheeses such as Fourme d'Ambert or Bleu d'Auvergne (from 3 to 8   weeks), while Gorgonzola cheese is usually ripened for approximately 3   months. Stilton and Cabrales are ripened for rather long periods that can reach up to 4–5   months. Longer periods are also classically used for the ewe milk-based Roquefort cheese (up to 9   months). In all cases, cheese ripening may follow strict regulations according to their denomination such as observed for French PDO Roquefort cheese. Ripening is then carried out in a two-step process involving both aerobic and anaerobic conditions. In the case of French Roquefort cheese, P. roqueforti growth first occurs within the cheese core and on the cheese surface under optimal aerobic conditions for 15   days in ventilated Roquefort cellars. Ventilation is controlled to ensure optimal growth conditions. After this time, the second step, called "plombage" in French, involves covering the cheeses with a foil sheet to seal the cheese surface and create limiting oxygen conditions (ie, partial anaerobic conditions). In particular, this step is of interest to prevent spoilage microorganisms from developing on the cheese surface and also slows P. roqueforti growth and metabolic activities during the ripening period. Roquefort cheeses are then stored in cold temperature conditions as low as −2 to −4°C for at least 3   months according to PDO guidelines. Rapidly decreasing levels of O2 creating partial anaerobic conditions within the cheese are also observed for other blue cheese types during ripening. For example, during Danablu ripening, a 50% decrease in O2 content was observed at 4   mm below the cheese rind after 1   week, while after 13   weeks ripening O2 was absent at levels below 0.25   mm from the rind (van den Tempel et al., 2002). In general, this anaerobic environment will be formed within a couple to a few weeks, except in the major openings or channels in direct contact with O2.

Numerous changes will occur during ripening and are largely due to the microbial species present and their respective metabolic activities. These species are either inoculated into the milk or cheese curd during the previous steps as stated above or may spontaneously occur during manufacture. In particular, LAB (including starter cultures and NSLAB, mainly facultative heterofermentative species), yeast (predominantly D. hansenii and to a lesser extent Kluyveromyces marxianus or Yarrowia lipolytica, although this list is not exhaustive), and P. roqueforti are present but at different levels on the surface or in the core. However, P. roqueforti clearly plays a very important role during this step due to its dominant enzymatic activities. Important microbial activities observed during ripening are mainly involved in lipid and protein degradation as well as aroma formation (see below). In this context, the openings or veins that were formed within the cheese core and to a lesser extent the cheese surface correspond to unique zones for these diverse metabolic activities to occur.

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Transgenic food crops: public acceptance and IPR

Usha Kiran , Nalini Kant Pandey , in Transgenic Technology Based Value Addition in Plant Biotechnology, 2020

12.8.2 Geographical indications

A geographical indication (GI) indicates a specific geographical origin of a product and specific qualities or a reputation attached with that product are due to the specific geographical origin. To function as a GI, a sign must identify a product as originating in a particular geographical region and the qualities, characteristics, or reputation of the product should be essentially due to the place of origin (Kailasm and Vedaraman, 2003 ). Examples of some GIs are Roquefort cheese, Georgian wine, Scotch Whisky, Pinggu peaches, Darjeeling tea, Agra petha, Kanjivaram silk, and Basmati rice.

Although GI as IPR is not involved with protection of new plant varieties, it helps in the protection of an existing plant variety, which has specific qualities or a reputation due to that particular geographical origin. A GI can be registered by any association of persons, producers, organization established by or under the law, representing and protecting the interests of the producers. Any person, manufacturer, or producer residing in that particular geographical region may use the registered GI by taking permission from GI holder. A manufacturer or producer may use GI as well as his trademark together for a GI product. The term of protection for a GI is 10 years, which can be extended for indefinite period by renewing after every 10 years.

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CHEESE | Mold-Ripened Varieties

N. Desmasures , in Encyclopedia of Food Microbiology (Second Edition), 2014

Blue Cheeses

Blue-veined cheeses mainly are made from the milk of cows, ewes, and buffalo. Such cheeses are characterized in general by pronounced gradients of pH, salt, and water activity. Common features of the production of all these cheeses include milk coagulation at 28–30 °C (strong flavored) or at 35–40 °C (mild flavored). Coagulation time is between 30 and 75 min. The coagulum is cut into strips or cubes. After stirring, when the grains of curd are firm enough, molding occurs quickly to ensure a spontaneous cohesion while maintaining openings in the cheese. To do this, no pressure is applied during draining, but molds are inverted frequently. At the end of the draining step, curd is salted in brine or with dry salt (in its mass or on the surface) to obtain a generally high salt concentration. To create and maintain openings, piercing of the curd is realized to allow further gas exchange. Maturation occurs in an environment with low temperature and high humidity.

Roquefort cheese is the first cheese that received a PDO. It is made from raw whole milk produced by ewes of the 'Lacaune' breed. Milk is matured using a mesophilic starter and heated at renneting temperature (28–34 °C). Renneting occurs no later than 48 h after the last milking. The P. roqueforti culture (traditional strains isolated from caves in the defined area) is added either in liquid form at the renneting stage or in powder form at the molding stage. The coagulum is cut until the lumps are the size of a hazelnut, and the curd-whey mixture is then mixed and rested several times until sufficiently drained grains of curd emerge. After part of the whey is drawn off (predrainage), the curd is hooped and slow whey drainage occurs at room temperature (∼18 °C) for up to 48 h, during which time curds are turned three to five times a day. Once curds are drained, their heel and faces are salted with dry marine salt, and then curds are transferred to the natural caves of Roquefort for ripening at 6–10 °C. Cracks in the limestone ('fleurines') act as natural filters and allow the circulation of fresh air with the correct temperature and relative humidity for optimal mold growth. Piercing of curds is done either in caves or in dairies no more than 2 days before curds are transferred to caves. This operation allows carbon dioxide (CO2) produced during fermentation to be expulsed and to oxygenate the curds and promote the development of P. roqueforti. Curds are left exposed in the caves for the length of time needed for P. roqueforti to develop successfully (at least 2 weeks). The ripening step is followed by a slow aging step in a protective wrapping, in the caves or in temperature-controlled cellars. Roquefort cheese cannot be sold for 3 months.

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MYCOTOXINS | Classifications

L.B. Bullerman , in Encyclopedia of Food Sciences and Nutrition (Second Edition), 2003

Potential Toxicity of Penicillium roqueforti

Penicillium roqueforti has been shown to produce several toxic compounds, including roquefortine, PR toxin, and festuclavine (Figure 14 ). Toxicities of PR toxin and roquefortine are low. Roquefortine is a neurotoxin that reportedly causes convulsive seizures, liver damage, and hemorrhage in the digestive tract in mice. However, repeated studies have failed to reproduce these results. Roquefortine has been recovered from blue cheese and was associated with the mold mycelia rather than the nonmoldy areas of the cheese. A toxic factor in the fat of Roquefort cheese that caused severe injury to the liver and other organs of rats has been reported. Atypical, wild strains of P. roqueforti have been shown to produce patulin and penicillic acid simultaneously, patulin alone, patulin plus citrinin, and mycophenolic acid. The significance of the various toxins produced by P. roqueforti to public health is not clear. Patulin, penicillic acid, and citrinin have been observed only in wild-type isolates of the organism and not in commercial strains, nor in any cheese produced by commercial strains. As such, the wild isolates represent no greater significance than any other toxinogenic isolates of other species. The significance of PR toxin, mycophenolic acid, the roquefortines, and related alkaloids to human health is likewise unclear, particularly in view of the limited toxicological information available on these compounds. PR toxin apparently reacts with cheese components and is neutralized. The fact that blue-veined cheeses have been consumed for centuries without any apparent ill effect suggests that the hazard to human health is minimal or nonexistent. (See ALKALOIDS | Properties and Determination.)

Figure 14. Chemical structures of some P. roqueforti toxins.

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STARTER CULTURES | Molds Employed in Food Processing

T. Uraz , B.H. Özer , in Encyclopedia of Food Microbiology (Second Edition), 2014

Use of Molds in Cheese-Making

Most cheese varieties are consumed as ripened. In the ripening process, the indigenous enzymes of milk, milk-clotting enzyme, (rennin) and starter cultures play determining roles. Endo- and exoenzymes produced by starter bacteria (lipases and proteases) give a characteristic aroma/flavor to cheese. The type of microorganism used varies depending on the type of cheese. These microorganisms can be applied either alone or in combination with bacteria and yeasts.

In cheese-making, Penicillium spp. (e.g., P. camemberti and P. roqueforti) are widely used. Geotrichum spp. (e.g., G. candidum) are also applied to a lesser extent. P. camemberti is employed as starter for French cheeses made from cow's milk, such as Camembert, Brie, Carré de l'Est, Neufchâtel, and some other cheese produced from goat's milk. P. roqueforti gives a characteristic aroma/flavor to cheeses made from cow's milk, such as Bleu d'Auvergne, Bleu de Bresse, Gorgonzola, blue Danois, Stilton, Roquefort made from sheep's milk, and some cheeses manufactured from goat's milk. Although it is not common, G. candidum is used as a starter in some soft cheeses and, in some cases, Camembert, Pont l'Evêque, and Saint-Nectaire cheeses.

Depending on the type of cheese, the molds can be applied as follows:

•

by adding to cheese milk with starter culture or with milk-clotting enzyme

•

by adding to brine (P. camemberti)

•

by spreading on to the surface of cheese in a cold room (P. camemberti, G. candidum)

•

by inoculating into curd before pressing (P. roqueforti).

About 1000 species of Penicillium have been identified so far and only a few strains of the above-mentioned species are of industrial importance in terms of cheese production. P. camemberti has been known since 1906. The growth rate of P. camemberti is the same as other Penicillium species. On malt extract, it produces colonies of 25–35 mm diameter within 2 weeks at 25 °C. The optimum growth temperature of P. camemberti is around 20–25 °C. While it multiplies at 5 °C, high temperatures (e.g., 37 °C) have an inhibitory effect on P. camemberti. P. camemberti is moderately tolerant against salt and 20% salt concentration is accepted as the critical value at which growth ceases. Other Penicillium species are more acid-tolerant than P. camemberti. The growth of these species is favored by low pH (pH 3.5–6.5). With the exception of selected strains, no strains are able to grow above pH 7.0.

The growth rate of P. roqueforti is higher than that of P. camemberti. On malt extract, it spreads within 7 days over a 40–70 mm diameter area at 25 °C. The optimum growth temperature of P. roqueforti is around 35–40 °C. On the other hand, due to its ability to grow at low temperatures (e.g., <5 °C), it often spoils refrigerated foods. Although it is favored by an acid environment (pH 4), it shows activity within a wider range of pH than P. camemberti (pH 3.0–10.5). Its growth is stimulated at low salt concentrations but, at 6–8% salt concentration, the growth rate decreases and, at 20% salt concentration, it stops completely.

Although it is not as common as P. camemberti and P. roqueforti, G. candidum is also used in the manufacture of some cheese varieties. It may grow at 5 °C up to 38 °C, but its optimum growth temperature is around 25 °C. Although it remains active over a wide pH range, its growth is stimulated by an acidic environment (pH 5.0–5.5). Unlike Penicillium spp., G. candidum is sensitive to salt and even at 1% salt concentration its growth is slowed: at 5–6% salt concentrations an inhibitory effect is observed.

P. camemberti and P. roqueforti, which are both of industrial importance, are aerobic. P. roqueforti can even remain active at oxygen concentration as low as 5%. Both Penicillium species (P. camemberti and P. roqueforti) are able to metabolize organic and inorganic compounds. Their lactose metabolism is of crucial importance in cheese-making.

Biochemical Activity of P. camemberti and P. roqueforti and Their Role in Cheese-ripening

Both Penicillium species consume lactic acid and lactate present in cheese to cover their requirement for metabolites essential for growth. As a result of de-acidification occurring during the consumption of lactic acid and lactate, the pH of cheese increases, providing a suitable environment for the activity of enzymes. This leads to the development of aroma/flavor and cheese texture. In addition, the neutralization of lactic acid results in stimulation of bacteria and micrococci, which are acid-sensitive, at the end of the ripening period.

P. camemberti synthesizes two specific exocellular enzymes – acid protease, which is stable within the pH range 3.5–5.5 and has optimum activity at pH 5.0, and metalloprotease, which is stable at higher pH ranges (pH 8.5–9.5) and has optimum activity at pH 6.0. Also, carboxy-peptidase and amino-peptidase enzymes, whose optimum growth pH range is between 4.0–7.0 and 7.5–8.5, respectively, are produced by P. camemberti.

Proteolysis initiated by enzymes produced by P. roqueforti plays an important role in the development of aroma/flavor and the texture of blue-veined cheeses. Similar to P. camemberti, P. roqueforti also synthesizes acid protease (optimum pH 3.5–4.5), metalloprotease (optimum pH 5.5–6.0), carboxy-peptidase (optimum pH 3.5–4.0), amino-peptidase (optimum pH 7.5–8.0), and some exoenzymes.

Proteolysis is an important feature of mold-ripened cheeses (both surface-smeared and blue-veined cheeses). At the end of the ripening period, the ratio of soluble nitrogen to total nitrogen is around 35% in Camembert cheese and 50% in Roquefort cheese.

These Penicillium species also synthesize lipases which are determining enzymes for the aroma/flavor of mold-ripened cheeses. Lipases produced by P. camemberti show activity within a pH range 1.0–10.0, with optimum pH at 8.5–9.5. The optimum temperature for lipase activity is 35 °C; however, at 0 °C they maintain 50% of maximum activity. P. camemberti causes oxidative degradation of lipids through its enzymes, especially degradation of caprilic acid and, secondarily, lauric acid. In cheeses where P. camemberti is used as a starter, a positive correlation between proteolytic activity and lipolytic and β-oxidative changes is established.

As with P. camemberti, the activity of lipases produced by P. roqueforti varies depending on the strains. However, an adverse relationship between proteolytic and lipolytic activity in cheeses made by P. roqueforti is present. P. roqueforti synthesizes two exocellular lipases, namely acid lipase (optimum pH 6.5) and alkali lipase (optimum pH 7.5–8.0). These lipases act on tricaproine and tributyrine, respectively. Further enzymatic conversions of free fatty acids lead to β-ketonic acids and methyl ketones, which give a characteristic aroma/flavor to mold-ripened cheeses. The level of free fatty acids in mold-ripened cheeses is an indicator for the level of lipolysis. For example, in Camembert cheese the level of free fatty acids ranges between 6 and 10%, in Roquefort cheese this falls to 7–12% and in blue cheese it is above 10%.

The Role of P. camemberti and P. roqueforti in the Aroma/Flavor of Cheese

The characteristic aroma/flavor of mold-ripened cheeses is a result of a series of enzymatic modifications of milk compounds. The enzymatic modifications of proteins and lipids, which depend on the technology applied, lead to the formation of many kinds of aroma/flavor compounds. The type and concentration of acids, primary and secondary alcohols, carbonyl compounds, esters, and hydrocarbons determine the characteristic aroma/flavor of various cheeses. Such compounds, present in Camembert cheese, are shown in Table 3. The characteristic aroma/flavor compound for this type of cheese is 1-octene-3-ol and the presence of this compound at high levels in Camembert cheese causes aroma defects.

Table 3. Volatile compounds isolated from Camembert cheese

Primary alcohols C2, 3, 4, 6, 2-methylpropanol, 3-methylbutanol, oct-1-ene-3-ol, 2-phenylethanol
Secondary alcohols C4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 11
Methyl ketones C4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15
Aldehydes C6, 7, 9, 2, and 3 methylbutanol
Esters C2, 4, 6, 8, 10-ethyl, 2-phenylethylacetate
Phenols Phenol, p-cresol
Lactones C9, C10, C12
Sulfur compounds H2S, methyl sulfide, dimethylsulfide, methanethiol, 2,4-dithiapentane, 3,4-dithiahexane, 2,4,5-trithiahexane, 3-methylthio, 2,4-dithiapentane, 3-methylthiopropanol
Anisoles Anisole, 4-methylanisole, 2,4-dimethyl anisole
Amines Phenylethylamine, C2,3,4, diethylenamine, isobutylamine, 3-methylbutylamine
Miscellaneous Dimethoxybenzene, isobutylacetamide

In soft cheeses ripened by surface-smeared molds, phenylethanol and its acetic and butyric acid esters can easily be recognized. Depending on the ripening coefficient of cheese, sulfuric compounds can also be detected organoleptically.

In Roquefort cheese, the level of fatty acids, methyl ketones and secondary alcohols determines the characteristic aroma/flavor. However, the level of such compounds in cheese varies greatly depending upon the technological variables ( Table 4). In mature Roquefort cheese, e.g., the methyl ketones having seven and nine carbon atoms are abundant. The methyl ketones are affected by technological applications. The stimulated lipolysis of milk fat also causes an increase in the level of methyl ketones. In contrast, the high level of fatty acids has an inhibitory effect on the growth of Penicillium spp. This eventually leads to the inhibition of the formation of methyl ketones. Similarly, salting influences the level of lipolysis and, as a result, retards the release of methyl ketones. It is known that at high salt concentrations, lipolysis is greatly delayed. Some methyl ketones are converted to secondary alcohols by Penicillium spp.

Table 4. Variation in the concentration of methyl ketones in blue and Roquefort cheeses during ripening (mg per 10 g of fat)

Cheese Age of cheese (C15 + C13) C11 C9 C7 C5 C3
Blue 2 months 1.1 1.7 7.6 30.2 20.0 5.1
Blue 3 months 0.9 0.7 2.5 3.4 0.9 Trace
Blue 4 months 1.3 1.7 8.5 12.4 7.2 Trace
Roquefort 2 months 0.5 0.7 7.4 15.6 11.0 2.4
Roquefort 3 months 0.4 1.6 12.4 9.2 1.2 0
Roquefort 4 months 0.3 0.3 2.6 4.2 0 0

Compounds formed as a result of degradation of milk fat characterize the typical aroma/flavor of blue cheeses. Additionally, esters and phenylethanol present in cheese balance the typical aroma/flavor of mold-ripened cheeses.

Mycotoxins of P. camemberti and P. roqueforti

It has long been known that some molds (e.g., A. flavus) produce mycotoxins which are harmful to humans and animals and which have carcinogenic effects on humans. These mycotoxins are secondary metabolites which are synthesized from amino acids and ketonic acids. Cyclopiazonic acid produced by P. camemberti was found to be fatal for mice. In mature Camembert cheese stored at 14–18 °C, this compound was not found but the formation of cyclopiazonic acid in cheese stored at 25 °C was reported. Additionally, some authors asserted that cyclopiazonic acid was present on the surface of Camembert cheese. The effect of cyclopiazonic acid on humans has yet to be established.

In a study carried out in France, 30 commercial P. camemberti strains were tested both in vitro and in the cheese factories to determine their level of toxigenicity and it was reported that only three strains were found to be toxigenic (one very weak, one medium, and one strong).

P. roqueforti produces PR toxin, PR imin, and patulin, which are unstable in cheese.

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Volume 4

E. Coton , ... M. Coton , in Encyclopedia of Dairy Sciences (Third Edition), 2022

Intraspecific Biodiversity

Penicillium roqueforti can be found in various biotopes raising questions about population divergence within this species. To delve deeper into P. roqueforti intraspecific variability, large isolate collections that aim at representing, as best as possible, the species biotope and geographical origin, were put in place. Cheese isolates are often overrepresented due to the easiness of their isolation from this source as compared to other sources. Recent population genomics distinguished four genetically differentiated populations, including two cheese-associated populations, the first one corresponding to blue-veined "non-Roquefort" cheese (used in various blue-veined productions around the world) and the second to cheese strains sampled from Roquefort PDO cheese. This "Roquefort" population displayed some diversity despite a genetic bottleneck, while the "non-Roquefort" population corresponded to a clonal lineage. Interestingly, comparative genomics established that the genomes of the strains from the latter population harbored two large genomic regions (named CheesyTer and Wallaby, 575   kb and 80   kb long, respectively) horizontally transferred between different Penicillium from the cheese environment and that would confer a competitive advantage on cheese. The source of these horizontally transferred regions has not yet been identified. Noteworthy, microsatellite analyses suggested that genetic subdivision was potentially associated to the isolate origin, especially those from protected designation of origin (PDO) or protected geographical indication (PGI) cheeses.

Overall, the obtained results indicated that the two cheese populations resulted from independent domestication events while the other two populations corresponded to isolates found in non-cheese environments. The latter included silage and food spoiler strains, and wood and other food spoiler strains, respectively. Noteworthy, a recent study suggested very good agreement between genetic and MALDI-TOF spectral data analyses for P. roqueforti suggesting that MALDI-TOF can be applied for strain typing in this species.

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Volume 1

M.H. Fahmy , in Encyclopedia of Dairy Sciences (Third Edition), 2022

Origin and Distribution

The Lacaune breed was named after a town southeast of Tarn in the Lacaune Mountains of France (Fig. 4). In 1870, in an effort to improve milk production potential, Merino, Southdown and Barbary breeds were crossed with Lacaune sheep. This action has had little influence on the breed. In 1947, the Camarès breed from south of the Aveyron was officially absorbed into the Lacaune breed together with the Larzac and Segala breeds of Aveyron and the Lauraguais and Corbires breeds of Aude.

Fig. 4. Lacaune ewe.

 Photograph courtesy of INRA, Toulouse Research Centre, France.

The primary product of this breed is milk, used in manufacturing Roquefort cheese. The production of meat and wool is also common. There are many specialized varieties of Lacaune sheep that have been selected for both milk and meat production.

Barillet et al. (2001) described the history of the Lacaune breed in the last 40 years. "The situation of the Lacaune dairy sheep breed has evolved dramatically during the last 40 years. In the 1960s, this dual purpose breed had a low milk yield and was compared in its local basin of production (the Roquefort area) with foreign high milk yield breeds, i.e. Friesian and Sarda breeds. The results showed very disappointing performances, both for lamb production for the Sarda breed, and for mortality for genotypes with more than 50% Friesian genes, the Friesian breed appearing to be poorly adapted to the local conditions. Therefore, in the 1970s a synthetic line called FSL (3/8 Friesian, 3/8 Sarda, 2/8 Lacaune) was created to avoid having more than 50% of the genes coming from an imported breed. Since the Lacaune genetic improvement program had become fully efficient in the 1980s, a crossbreeding strategy was disregarded in the Roquefort area. The Lacaune breed is now one of the high milk yield breeds, efficiently selected for milk yield and milk composition."

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Quality and testing of processed cheese: defects, QA, and QC

Apostolos S. Thomareis , Soumela E. Chatziantoniou , in Processed Cheese Science and Technology, 2022

13.5.1.1 Quality specifications of finished products

They relate to the type and quantity of raw materials allowed, heat treatment, and labeling.

a)

Natural cheeses: One or more cheeses of the same or two or more varieties are used for the manufacture, except cream cheese, Neufchatel cheese, cottage cheese, low fat cottage cheese, cottage cheese dry curd, cook cheese, hard grating cheese, semisoft part-skim cheese, part-skim spiced cheese, and skim milk cheese.

The weight of each variety of cheese in the finished product made from two varieties of cheese is ≥25% of the total weight of both, except for blue cheese, Nuworld cheese, Roquefort cheese or Gorgonzola cheese (≥10%), and for Limburger cheese (≥5%). The weight of each variety of cheese in the finished product made from three or more varieties of cheese is ≥15% of the total weight of all, except for blue cheese, Nuworld cheese, Roquefort cheese or Gorgonzola cheese (≥5%) and Limburger cheese (≥3%). These limits do not apply to the quantity of Cheddar cheese, washed curd cheese, Colby cheese and granular cheese in mixtures which are designated as "American cheese". Such mixtures are considered as one variety of cheese.

For PCF and PCS, a smaller amount of natural cheese is permitted, that is, the weight of the cheese ingredient is ≥51% of the weight of the finished product (LII, 2021d).

b)

Emulsifying agents: The emulsifying agents added, either alone or in combination, at ≤3% w/w of the finished product, are monosodium phosphate, disodium phosphate, trisodium phosphate, dipotassium phosphate, sodium hexametaphosphate, sodium acid pyrophosphate, tetrasodium pyrophosphate, sodium aluminum phosphate, sodium citrate, potassium citrate, calcium citrate, sodium tartrate, and sodium potassium tartrate (LII, 2021d).

c)

Optional ingredients: These are acidifying agents (vinegar, lactic acid, citric acid, acetic acid and phosphoric acid), milk fat products (cream, anhydrous milk fat and dehydrated cream giving fat <5% w/w of the product), water, salt, artificial coloring, spices or flavorings, mold-inhibiting ingredient (sorbic acid, potassium sorbate and sodium sorbate at ≤0.2% w/w, or sodium propionate and calcium propionate at ≤0.3% w/w) for slices and cuts), anti-sticking agent (lecithin at ≤0.03% w/w for slices and cuts), enzyme modified cheese, smoked cheese, or substances from wood smoke.

For PCF and PCS, the addition of optional dairy ingredients is allowed, such as milk, skim milk, buttermilk, cheese whey, albumin from cheese whey and skim milk cheese. For PCS, the addition of other optional ingredients is also allowed, such as hydrocolloids (carob bean gum, gum karaya, gum tragacanth, guar gum, gelatin, sodium carboxymethylcellulose, carrageenan, oat gum, sodium alginate, propylene glycol alginate and xanthan gum, at ≤0.8% w/w in the finished product), sweetening agents (sugar, dextrose, corn sugar, corn syrup, corn syrup solids, glucose syrup, glucose syrup solids, maltose, malt syrup, and hydrolyzed lactose, in quantum satis), and nisin (≤250 ppm in the product). When hydrocolloids are used, dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate may be added in a quantity not in excess of 0.5% by weight of such ingredients (LII, 2021d).

d)

Pasteurization: All processed cheese products (PC, PCF, PCS) are heated for ≥30 s at a temperature ≥65.6οC (150οF). In this case, the pasteurization conditions are a validation procedure (LII, 2021d).

e)

Labeling: The names of the varieties of cheese used in the manufacture shall appear in the name of the finished product, except in the case of cheeses designated as "American cheese". The full name of the food shall appear on the principal display panel of the label in type of uniform size, style, and color. The name of the food shall include a declaration of any flavoring or spice that characterizes the product. Each of the ingredients used in the food shall be declared on the label, except cheeses designated as "American cheeses" (LII, 2021d).

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Continental Atlantic Rivers

Jean-Pierre Descy , ... Eric Tabacchi , in Rivers of Europe, 2009

5.3.4.3 Land Use Patterns

Land use can be classified into three categories: urban and industrial zones (1.8%), forests and near-natural environments (38.6%), and agricultural lands (59.6%). Agriculture is the main activity in the Garonne valley. Stockbreeding associated with corn and sunflower production prevails in the upper valley. Cereal grains are grown upstream from Toulouse, fruits and vegetables in middle Garonne, orchards and greenhouse cultures in Agenais, and horticulture around cities. Prestigious wine-growing areas are found in the Bordeaux region, such as Château Pétrus (Pomerol), Château Yquem (Sauternes), Médoc, Margaux, Mouton Rothschild (Pauillac), St-Estèphe and St-Emilion.

The Tarn basin is predominantly rural. Stockbreeding occurs in the arid zones of Grands Causses (sheep, cattle, milk, Roquefort cheese). Grain, which requires irrigation, is grown in the plain. The Gaillac vineyards are situated on the moraine hills. Agriculture occurs on 42% of the basin. Farmland covers 56% of the Lot basin. The upper watershed (80% is permanent grassland) is dominated by extensive stockbreeding (sheep and cattle). Cahors are situated on the Lot hillside. The lower valley is a polycultural zone, where the main products are grains (maize, oilseeds), specialized produce (melons, strawberries, tomatoes, tobacco), and arboriculture.

The Dordogne basin has a dominant rural component. This basin is characterized by small farms and a highly diverse agriculture of grains, oilseed, vegetables, stockbreeding and wine. Agricultural lands represent 40% of the basin, and forestry is an important activity. The internal part of the Charente basin is rural, and the Charentais wine growing region (Cognac) represents 17% of the basin. Sugar beet production has been progressively abandoned in favour of more interesting crops like maize and oilseed. The water requirement for these news crops is higher and has led to a 20-fold increase in irrigation between 1970 and 2000.

In the upper mountain part (25% of the basin area) of the Adour basin, human activities are concentrated in the valleys (stockbreeding, tourism). The agricultural industry is well represented in the region (37% of all activities) and includes maize, vinyards and stockbreeding: 'Foie gras' industries, cheese and dairy, Armagnac distilleries and wineries. Forestry is an important activity and has promoted the implementation of wood transformation industries. Because of large beaches, lakes and forests, the main activity in the coastland area is tourism. Agriculture mainly consists of: stockbreeding (sheep, cattle, geese, ducks), viticulture in the Bordeaux wine area (Médoc, Graves, Blayais, Libournais, Entre-deux-mers), the Cognac production region, the Pineau Charente maritime, and forestry. The Aquitain forest is the third largest forest in France.

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